NETWORKS

Network
= = = = = = =SSL/TLS Handshaking Steps 1. Client: Hello Cipher List  2. Server: Authenticate Me -here's my certificate  -owner  -serial #  -Validity Dates  -Algorithm RSA  -Public Key  -here's Certififying Authority's certificate  -Fingerprint -> certificate  3. Client: check serial #  fingerprint w/CA  4. If OK, Key Exchange  Goto session cipher & shared key (encrypted)  5. Session is ready --> communicate securely= = = =Computer network=
 * NIC || Network Interface Card ||
 * LAN || Local Area Network, 1 switch ||
 * firewall || hardware or software designed to block unauthorized access while permitting authorized communications, configured to permit or deny network transmissions based upon a set of rules and other criteria. ||
 * packet || formatted unit of data ||
 * NAT || Network Address Translation, enables a LAN to use one set of IP addresses for internal traffic and a second set of addresses for external traffic. ||
 * PAT || Port Address Translation, each computer on a LAN transmitted the same IP address with a different port number assigned. ||
 * SSH || secure shell ||
 * VPN || Virtual Private Network ||
 * failsafe || a device that prevents other devices from failing ||
 * failover || a system of having backups such as redundant disks so that if part of a system or network go down, operations can continue unimpeded ||

A **computer network**, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of [|computers] and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications among users and allows users to share resources. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics.

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices. In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency ([|ARPA]) started funding the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ([|ARPANET]) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first computer network in the world.[|[][|1][|]] Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s.

Purpose
Computer networks can be used for several purposes:
 * //Facilitating communications.// Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
 * //Sharing hardware.// In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer.
 * //Sharing files, data, and information.// In a network environment, authorized user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
 * //Sharing software.// Users connected to a network may run application [|programs] on remote computers.
 * //Information preservation.//
 * //Security.//
 * //Speed up.//

Network classification
The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.

Connection method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as [|optical fiber], [|Ethernet], [|wireless LAN], [|HomePNA], [|power line communication] or [|G.hn]. Ethernet as it is defined by IEEE 802 utilizes various standards and mediums that enable communication between devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs, switches, bridges, or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use [|radio waves] or [|infrared] signals as a transmission medium. [|ITU-T] [|G.hn] technology uses existing [|home wiring] ([|coaxial cable], phone lines and [|power lines]) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.

Wired technologies

 * //[|Twisted pair] wire// is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling consist of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce [|crosstalk] and [|electromagnetic induction]. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are rated in categories which are manufactured in different increments for various scenarios.
 * //[|Coaxial cable]// is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.
 * //[|Optical fiber] cable// consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire. [//[|citation needed]//]

Wireless technologies

 * //Terrestrial [|microwave]// – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx, 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.
 * //Communications [|satellites]// – The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
 * //Cellular and PCS systems// – Use several radio communications technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.
 * //Wireless LANs// – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE.
 * [|Infrared communication], which can transmit signals between devices within small distances not more than 10 meters peer to peer or ( face to face ) without any body in the line of transmitting.

Scale
Networks are often classified as [|local area network] (LAN), [|wide area network] (WAN), [|metropolitan area network] (MAN), [|personal area network] (PAN), [|virtual private network] (VPN), [|campus area network] (CAN), [|storage area network] (SAN), and others, depending on their scale, scope and purpose, e.g., [|controller area network] (CAN) usage, trust level, and access right often differ between these types of networks. LANs tend to be designed for internal use by an organization's internal systems and employees in individual physical locations, such as a building, while WANs may connect physically separate parts of an organization and may include connections to third parties.

Functional relationship (network architecture)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist among the elements of the network, e.g., [|active networking], [|client–server] and [|peer-to-peer] (workgroup) architecture.

Network topology
Main article: [|Network topology] Computer networks may be classified according to the [|network topology] upon which the network is based, such as [|bus network], [|star network], [|ring network], [|mesh network]. Network topology is the coordination by which devices in the network are arranged in their logical relations to one another, independent of physical arrangement. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement and are connected to a hub, the network has a star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct. Networks may be classified based on the method of data used to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.

Types of networks based on physical scope
Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.

Local area network
A [|local area network] (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on [|Ethernet] technology, although new standards like [|ITU-T] [|G.hn] also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).[|[][|2][|]] Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand [|IP]. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other [|IEEE 802.3] LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. [|IEEE] has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.[|[][|3][|]]

** Personal area network **
A [|personal area network] (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.[|[][|4][|]] A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Firewire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

** Home area network **
A [|home area network] (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a CATV or [|Digital Subscriber Line] (DSL) provider. It can also be referred as an office area network (OAN).

Wide area network
A [|wide area network] (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the [|OSI reference model]: the [|physical layer], the [|data link layer], and the [|network layer].

** Campus network **
A [|campus network] is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LAN's) within a limited geographical area. The networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, [|Cat5] cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.). In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student residence halls.

Metropolitan area network
A [|Metropolitan area network] is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. Sample EPN made of [|Frame relay] WAN connections and dialup remote access. Sample VPN used to interconnect 3 offices and remote users

Enterprise private network
An [|enterprise private network] is a network build by an enterprise to interconnect various company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to share computer resources.

** Virtual private network **
A [|virtual private network] (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point.

**Internetwork**
An [|internetwork] is the connection of two or more private computer networks via a common routing technology (OSI [|Layer 3]) using routers. The Internet is an aggregation of many internetworks, hence its name was shortened to Internet.

Backbone network
A [|Backbone network] (BBN) A backbone network or network backbone is a part of computer network infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks.[1][2] A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the networks connected to it. A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of the locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different departments of a company that are located at different geographical locations. The pieces of the network connections (for example: ethernet, wireless) that bring these departments together is often mentioned as network backbone. Network congestion is often taken into consideration while designing backbones. Backbone networks should not be confused with the Internet backbone.

** Global Area Network **
A [|Global Area Network] (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial [|wireless LANs].[|[][|5][|]]

Internet
The [|Internet] is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the [|Internet Protocol Suite]. It is the successor of the [|Advanced Research Projects Agency Network] (ARPANET) developed by [|DARPA] of the [|United States Department of Defense]. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the [|World Wide Web] (WWW). Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system ([|IP addresses]) administered by the [|Internet Assigned Numbers Authority] and [|address registries]. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the [|reachability] of their address spaces through the [|Border Gateway Protocol] (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

Intranets and extranets
Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a local area network. An [|intranet] is a set of networks, using the [|Internet Protocol] and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. An [|extranet] is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities—a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet—while at the same time the customers may not be considered //trusted// from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Overlay network
An [|overlay network] is a virtual computer network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay are connected by virtual or logical links, each of which corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. A sample overlay network: IP over SONET over Optical For example, many [|peer-to-peer] networks are overlay networks because they are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links run on top of the [|Internet]. The Internet was initially built as an overlay on the [|telephone network] .[|[][|6][|]] Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over telephone lines using [|modem], before any data network existed. Nowadays the Internet is the basis for many overlaid networks that can be constructed to permit [|routing] of messages to destinations specified by an [|IP address]. For example, [|distributed hash tables] can be used to route messages to a node having a specific [|logical address], whose IP address is known in advance. Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through [|quality of service] guarantees to achieve higher-quality [|streaming media]. Previous proposals such as [|IntServ], [|DiffServ], and [|IP Multicast] have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all [|routers] in the network. [//[|citation needed]//] On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from [|Internet service providers]. The overlay has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes a message traverses before reaching its destination. For example, [|Akamai Technologies] manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of [|multicast]). Academic research includes [|End System Multicast] and Overcast for multicast; RON ([|Resilient Overlay Network]) for resilient routing; and OverQoS for quality of service guarantees, among others. A backbone network or network backbone is a part of computer network infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks.[1][2] A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the networks connected to it.

Basic hardware components
All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network [|nodes], such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly [|Category 5 cable]). Less common are microwave links (as in [|IEEE 802.12]) or optical cable ("[|optical fiber]").

Network interface cards
A [|network card], network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of [|computer hardware] designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of [|MAC addresses].

Repeaters
A [|repeater] is an [|electronic] device that receives a [|signal], cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and [|retransmits] it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Hubs
A [|network hub] contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.[|[][|7][|]] It works on the Physical Layer of the OSI model..

Bridges
A [|network bridge] connects multiple [|network segments] at the [|data link layer] (layer 2) of the [|OSI model]. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which [|MAC addresses] are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges come in three basic types:
 * Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
 * Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
 * Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches
A [|network switch] is a device that forwards and filters [|OSI layer 2] [|datagrams] (chunks of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets.[|[][|8][|]] A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.[|[][|9][|]] Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The term //switch// is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web [|URL] identifier).

Routers
A [|router] is an internetworking device that forwards [|packets] between networks by processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information from [|Layer 3 of the OSI Model]). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data).

Firewalls
Firewalls are the most important aspect of a network with respect to security. A firewalled system does not need every interaction or data transfer monitored by a human, as automated processes can be set up to assist in rejecting access requests from unsafe sources, and allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.